General Reading List

The below set of papers represent a starting point for people new to area.

1963

Parallel Processing in a Restructurable Computer System
Gerald Estrin, B. Bussell, R. Turn, and J. Bibb
IEEE Transactions on Electronic Computers, Volume 12, Issue 6, pp. 747--754, December, 1963
Early predecessor to reconfigurable computers; this was before integrated circuits and their ``configurations'' required physically moving wires, but the goal was the same. Modern FPGAs make this vision practical.

1982

The Yorktown Simulation Engine
Monty Denneau Proceedings of the 19th Design Automation Conference, p. 55--59, 1982
This was a pre-FPGA logic simulation engine that was also used to simulate logic before building hardware. It includes most of the ideas behind multicontext FPGAs.

1986

A User Programmable Reconfigurable Logic Array
William S. Carter, Khue Duong, Ross H. Freeman, Hung-Cheng Hsieh, Jason Y. Ja, John E. Mahoney, Luan T. Ngo, and Shelly L. Sze
Proceedings of the IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference, pp. 233--235, May 1986
First peer-review, public description of a commercial FPGA.

1990

Architecture of Field-Programmable Gate Arrays: The Effect of Logic Block Functionality on Area Efficiency
Jonathan Rose and Robert Francis and David Lewis and Paul Chow
IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, Volume 25, Number 5, pp. 1217--1225, October, 1990
Why did we start with 4-LUT FPGAS? But more than that, this is beautiful example of formulating a clean question about architecture, defining a parameterized space, identifying a cost model, and explorting the space to find the best option.

1991

Building and Using a Highly Programmable Logic Array
Maya Gokhale, William Holmes, Andrew Kopser, Sara Lucas, Ronald Minnich, Douglas Sweely, and Daniel Lopresti IEEE Computer, Volume 24, Number 1, pp. 81--89, 1991
One of the early FPGA Computing systems that demonstrated performance exceeding supercomputers on a specialized problem (DNA Sequence matching) using a board of FPGAs. The entire capacity of one of these boards is smaller than today's midrange FPGAs

Compiling Occam into FPGAs
Ian Page and Wayne Luk FPGAs, pp. 271--283, Abingdon EE&CS; Books, 1991
Describes methodology to compile from a high-level language to FPGA, a precursor to Handel-C.

1992

A Reconfigurable Multiprocessor IC for Rapid Prototyping of Algorithmic-Specific High-Speed DSP Data Paths
Dev C. Chen and Jan M. Rabaey
IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, Volume 27, Number 12, pp. 1895--1904, December, 1992
Early coarse-grained reconfigurable device initially intended for rapid prototyping of DSP algorithms; PADDI has 16b functional units and 8 configuration contexts which operate in VLIW fashion.

1993

Virtual Wires: Overcoming Pin Limitations in FPGA-based Logic Emulators
Jonathan Babb, Russell Tessier, and Anant Agarwal
Proceedings of the IEEE Workshop on FPGAs for Custom Computing Machines, pp. 142--151, April, 1993
Time-multiplexing the FPGA I/O to better balance I/O bandwith with internal FPGA capacity in multi-FPGA systems.

1994

FlowMap: An Optimal Technology Mapping Algorithm for Delay Optimization in Lookup-Table Based FPGA Designs
Jason Cong and Yuzheng Ding
IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design, Volume 13, Issue 1, pp. 1--12, January, 1994
How to cover logic into LUTs; nice observation that the problem can be reframed from logic packing to IO cuts. Use of dynamic programming and max flow is algorithmically elegant. There are a wealth of improvements and more sophisticated versions since this, but it's worth starting here for the cleanness of this basic problem formulation.*

1995

PathFinder: A Negotiation-Based Performance-Driven Router for FPGAs
Larry McMurchie and Carl Ebeling
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Field-Programmable Gate Arrays, pp. 111--117, 1995
The basic routing algorithm around which virtually all FPGA routing is built today. Dismisses with separate global/detail phases and uses adaptive costs to sort out congestion.

Teramac---Configurable Custom Computing
Rick Amerson, Richard Carter, W. Bruce Culbertson, Phil Kuekes, and Greg Snider
Proceedings of the IEEE Workshop on FPGAs for Custom Computing Machines, pp. 32--38, April, 1995
A reconfigurable system based on a custom FPGA-like design aimed at rapid application mapping.

Video Communications using Rapidly Reconfigurable Hardware
John Villasenor, Chris Jones, and Brian Schoner
IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology, Volume 5, Number 6, pp. 565--567, December 1995
Early article articulating and demonstrating the idea of using rapid Run-Time Reconfiguration in order to run large tasks on smaller FPGA systems.

1996

FPGA and CPLD Architectures: A Tutorial
Stephen Brown and Jonathan Rose
IEEE Design and Test of Computers, Volume 13, Number 2, pp. 42--57, 1996
An approachable tutorial for a general audience on FPGA and CPLD architectures.

DPGA Utilization and Application
André DeHon
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Field-Programmable Gate Arrays, pp. 115--121, February, 1996
What would you do with a multicontext FPGA and what benefits does it offer?

MATRIX: A Reconfigurable Computing Architecture with Configurable Instruction Distribution and Deployable Resources
Ethan Mirsky and André DeHon
Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on FPGAs for Custom Computing Machines, pp. 157--166, April, 1996
Early coarse-grained reconfigurable architecture that allows flexible organization of units and instruction distribution. The basic element is a composable 8b funcntional unit with a 256 byte memory/register file that can also be used to hold dynamic instructions.

RaPiD---Reconfigurable Pipelined Datapath
Carl Ebeling and Darren Cronquist and Paul Franklin Proceedings of the International Conference on Field-Programmable Logic and Applications (published as LNCS-1142), pp. 126--135, Springer, 1997
Early coarse-grained, domain-specific reconfigurable architecture. RaPiD has 16b functional units arranged in a 1D linear array.

Programmable Active Memories: Reconfigurable Systems Come of Age
Jean E. Vuillemin, Patrice Bertin, Didier Roncin, Mark Shand, Hervé Touati, and Philippe Boucard
IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems, Volume 4, Number 1, pp. 56--69, March, 1996
One of the earliest FPGA computing systems. PAM demonstrated impressive performance from a board of FPGAs on a range of applications; the entire capacity of a PAM board is smaller than today's midrange FPGAs.

1997

Signal Processing at 250 MHz using High-Performance FPGAs
Brian Von Herzen
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Field-Programmable Gate Arrays, pp. 62--68, 1997
Early and inspiring demonstration that FPGAs can operate productively at very high clock rates by paying careful attention to spatial locality and pipelining.

Reconfigurable Computing: The Solution to Low Power Programmable DSP
Jan Rabaey
Proceedings of the 1997 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, Volume 1, pp. 275--278, April, 1997
Early paper making the case for the energy efficiency of reconfigurable architectures and including an early comparison of energy among processors, FPGAs, and ASICs.

A Time-Multiplexed FPGA
Steve Trimberger, Dean Carberry, Anders Johnson and Jennifer Wong
Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on FPGAs for Custom Computing Machines, pp. 22--28, April, 1997
How to add multicontext support to a mostly conventional FPGA architecture base.

Defect Tolerance on the TERAMAC Custom Computer
W. Bruce Culbertson, Rick Amerson, Richard Carter, Phil Kuekes, and Greg Snider Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on FPGAs for Custom Computing Machines, pp. 116--123, April, 1997
Shows how reconfigurability of the FPGA can be used to to map around defects in the fabricated IC or board-level system. An early paper giving a full-system demonstration of the benefits of component-specific mapping.

VPR: A New Packing, Placement, and Routing Tool for FPGA Research
Vaughn Betz and Jonathan Rose
Proceedings of the International Conference on Field-Programmable Logic and Applications (published as LNCS-1304), pp. 213--222, Springer, 1997
A good placer coupled with a good version of Pathfinder and targeted at Island-style FPGAs. The free availability of this high-quality tool has provided a baseline standard for FPGA architectural work for over a decade.

1998

A New Retiming-based Technology Mapping Algorithm for LUT-based FPGAs
Peichen Pan and Chih-Chang Lin
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Field-Programmable Gate Arrays, pp. 35--42, February, 1998
Optimally solve LUT mapping and retiming simultaneously; there are so few things we can solve optimally, and so few things we can afford to address together, it's refreshing to see formulations where you can provide optimal results across multiple traditional levels of decomposition. As with flowmap, there are later papers which take this further and provide more efficient and general solutions, but the earlier papers introduce the cleanest problems and key ideas.

How Much Logic Should Go in an FPGA Logic Block?
Vaughn Betz and Jonathan Rose
IEEE Design and Test of Computers, Volume 15, Number 1, pp. 10--15, 1998
A paper explaining the move to ``Island-Style'' FPGAs. Why do we use clusters with multiple LUTs?

1999

Architecture and CAD for Deep-Submicron FPGAs
Vaughn Betz, Jonathan Rose, and Alexander Marquardt
Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999
Classic book on FPGA architecture and CAD. Describes VPR and island style FPGAs. While the technology is dated, this book provides the best single introduction to FPGA organization and implementation issues as well as a description of the popular clustering, placement, and routing algorithms using for physical mapping of designs to FPGAs.

Balancing Interconnect and Computation in Reconfigurable Computing Array (or, why you don't really want 100% LUT utilization)
André DeHon
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Field-Programmable Gate Arrays, pp. 69--78, February, 1999
Since interconnect is the dominant area (and delay and energy) contributor on FPGAs, architectural optimizations which try to provide adequate interconnec to use all the logic may quite inefficient; this paper turns the question around and asks how the two should be balanced together. This provides a clean, parameterized formulation of this tradeoff.

FPGA Routing Architecture: Segmentation and Buffering to Optimize Speed and Density
Vaughn Betz and Jonathan Rose
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Field-Programmable Gate Arrays, pp. 59--68, February, 1999
Why FPGA tracks are segmented, and details on the tradeoffs involved.

HSRA: High-Speed, Hierarchical Synchronous Reconfigurable Array
William Tsu, Kip Macy, Atul Joshi, Randy Huang, Norman Walker, Tony Tung, Omid Rowhani, Varghese George, John Wawrzynek, and André DeHon
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Field-Programmable Gate Arrays, pp. 125--134--78, February, 1999
Why should an FPGA run slower than a processor? Shows how adding pipelining to interconnect allows tools to target high-throughput operations.

2000

The Density Advantage of Configurable Computing
André DeHon
IEEE Computer, Volume 33, Number 4, pp. 41--49, 2000
Broad-audience article comparing FPGA, processor, and custom logic denstities for accelerating computing applications.

The Garp Architecture and C Compiler
Timothy Callahan and John Hauser and John Wawrzynek
IEEE Computer, Volume 33, Number 4, pp. 62--69, 2000
Details one of the earliest architectures for using a reconfigurable array as a coprocessor attached to a microprocessor, including a compiler capable of automatically extracting application kernels for execution on the reconfigurable array.

PipeRench: a reconfigurable architecture and compiler
Seth C. Goldstein, Herman Schmit, Mihai Budiu, Srihari Cadambi, Matthew Moe, and R. Reed Taylor
IEEE Computer, Volume 33, Number 4, pp. 70--77, 2000
Coarse-grained reconfigurable with a virtual pipeline model that allows hardware scaling and fast application mapping.

Building a RISC System in an FPGA
Jan Gray
In Circuit Cellar Ink, Number 116--118, March, April, May, 2000
Tutorial on building custom processors optimized for implementation on FPGAs

2001

Pilchard—A Reconfigurable Computing Platform with Memory Slot Interface
P. H. W. Leong, M. P. Leong, O. Y. H. Cheung, T. Tung, C. M. Kwok, M. Y. Wong, and K. H. Lee
Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Field-Programmable Custom Computing Machines, pp. 170--179, April, 2001
A reconfigurable computing platform with a memory slot interface to improve transfer latency. A similar approach is used in DRC machines.

2002

Reconfigurable Computing: a Survey of Systems and Software
Katherine Compton and Scott Hauck
ACM Computing Surveys, Volume 34, Number 2, pp. 171---210, 2002
An excellent survey paper on reconfigurable computing.

2004

FPGAs vs. CPUs: Trends in Peak Floating-Point Performance
Keith Underwood
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Field-Programmable Gate Arrays, pp. 171--180, February, 2004
Article pointing out that FPGA performance on floating point was catching up with microprocessors and on track to surpass micoprocessor floating-point performance for many tasks.

Directional and Single-Driver Wires in FPGA Interconnect
Guy Lemieux, Edmund Lee, and Marvin Tom and Anthony Yu
Proceedings of the International Conference on Field-Programmable Technology, pp. 41--48, December, 2004
Why it no longer makes sense to have mult-driver, bidirectional wires.

2005

The Stratix II Logic and Routing Architecture
David Lewis, Elias Ahmed, Gregg Baeckler, Vaughn Betz, Mark Bourgeault, David Cashman, David Galloway, Mike Hutton, Chris Lane, Andy Lee, Paul Leventis, Sandy Marquardt, Cameron McClintock, Ketan Padalia, Bruce Pedersen, Giles Powell, Boris Ratchev, Srinivas Reddy, Jay Schleicher, Kevin Stevens, Richard Yuan, Richard Cliff and Jonathan Rose
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Field-Programmable Gate Arrays, pp. 14--20, February, 2005
A contemporary FPGA architecture.

BEE2: A High-End Reconfigurable Computing System
Chen Chang, John Wawrzynek, and Robert W. Brodersen
IEEE Design and Test of Computers, Volume 22, Number 2, pp. 114---125, 2005
A contemporary reconfigurable computing platform.

Dynamic voltage scaling for commercial FPGAs
C. T. Chow, L. S. M. Tsui, Philip H. W. Leong, Wayne Luk, and Steve J. E. Wilton
Proceedings of the International Conference on Field-Programmable Technology, pp. 173--180, December, 2005
Shows how to exploit dynamic voltage scaling on off-the-shelf FPGAs.

Reconfigurable Computing: Architectures and Design Methods
T.J. Todman, G.A. Constantinides, S.J.E. Wilton, O. Mencer, W. Luk, and P.Y.K. Cheung
Computers and Digital Techniques, IEE Proceedings, Volume 152, Number 2, pp. 193---207, March, 2005
A recent survey paper on reconfigurable computing platforms and design with a wealth of references.

2006

Stream Computations Organized for Reconfigurable Execution
André DeHon, Yury Markovsky, Eylon Caspi, Michael Chu, Randy Huang, Stylianos Perissakis, Laura Pozzi, Joseph Yeh, and John Wawrzynek
Journal of Microprocessors and Microsystems, Volume 30, Number 6, pp. 334--354, September, 2006
Scalable compute model for reconfigurable systems based on stream-connected concurrent operators. Illustrates how we can design applications at a high level and efficiently and automatically map them to physical hardware platforms with a wide-range capacities.

FPGA Design Automation: A Survey
Deming Chen, Jason Cong, and Peichen Pan
In Foundations and Trends in Electronic Design Automation, Volume 1, Number 3, pp. 195--330, November, 2006
Modern survey of FPGA CAD algorithms.

2007

Measuring the Gap Between FPGAs and ASICs
Ian Kuon and Jonathan Rose
IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems, Volume 26, Number 2, pp. 203--215, February, 2007
Modern effort to quantify the relative area, power, and delay of FPGAs compared to ASICs.

RAMP: Research Accelerator for Multiple Processors
John Wawrzynek, David Patterson, Mark Oskin, Shih-Lien Lu, Christoforos Kozyrakis, James C. Hoe, Derek Chiou, and Krste Asanovic
IEEE Micro, Volume 27, Number 2, pp. 46---57, 2007
An important, modern reconfigurable platform for emulation and simulation. With the growth in FPGA capacity, this effort can contemplate the emulation of systems containing hundreds to thousands of processor cores, where each FPGA is modeling several processors.

FPGA Architecture: Survey and Challenges
Ian Kuon, Russell Tessier, and Jonathan Rose
Foundations and Trends in Electronic Design Automation, Volume 2, Number 2, pp. 135--253, 2007
Modern survey of FPGA Architecture.

2008

Reconfigurable Computing: The Theory and Practice of FPGA-Based Computation
Scott Hauck and André DeHon
Elsevier, 2008
Comprehensive book that covers all aspects of computing with FPGAs and FPGA-like components including device architecture, programming approaches, CAD flows, design issues, and sample applications.

A Desktop Computer with a Reconfigurable Pentium
Shih-Lien L. Lu and Peter Yiannacouras and Taeweon Suh and Rolf Kassa and Michael Konow
Transactions on Reconfigurable Technology and Systems, Volume 1, Number 1, March, 2008
Demonstration that a Pentium processor can be implemented on less than half of a modern FPGA.

2009

VPR 5.0: FPGA CAD and Architecture Exploration Tools with Single-Driver Routing, Heterogeneity and Process Scaling
Jason Luu, Ian Kuon, Peter Jamieson, Ted Campbell, Andy Ye, Wei Mark Fang, and Jonathan Rose
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Field-Programmable Gate Arrays, pp. 133--142, February, 2009
Update of key open-source physical design tool including updated studies on LUT size, cluster size, and segmentation.